Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education
School Factors as Correlates of Students’ Chemistry Achievement in Senior Secondary Schools in North-West Sierra Leone
Even though there is proof that learning in favorable conditions yields positive outcomes, the performance of students in chemistry in North-West Sierra Leone remains on a downward trajectory. This research explored school factors as correlates of students’ chemistry achievement in senior secondary schools in North-West Sierra Leone using an ex-post facto research design. Specifically, the study examined the influence of school location and laboratory adequacy on students’ academic achievement in chemistry. Data from 198 senior secondary school two (SSS II) students from both urban and rural schools were obtained using the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) and the School Factors Questionnaire (SFQ), with a reliability coefficient of 0.78 and 0.82, respectively. Independent samples t-test and Pearson correlation were utilized for data analyses using SPSS version 27. It was found that there was a statistically significant difference in chemistry achievement with respect to school location, where urban students outperformed their rural counterparts [t (196) = 6.12, p < .05] with a large effect size (d = 0.91). Additionally, laboratory adequacy and students’ achievements in chemistry showed a positive correlation (r = .46), explaining 21% of the variance in achievement. The findings further suggest that inadequate laboratory facilities and disparities in educational resources between urban and rural schools may contribute significantly to poor chemistry performance among students. This research paper concludes that school locations and adequate laboratories are some of the key determinants of students’ academic achievement in chemistry. It should therefore be a priority for policymakers to ensure that there is equal resource allocation in urban and rural schools, including laboratory facilities, to strengthen chemistry education and improve students’ academic outcomes in North-West Sierra Leone.
Copyright (c) 2026 Saidu Conteh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Role of Students’ Perceptions of Assessment Tasks in Science Classes in Predicting Their Perception of the Classroom Assessment Environment
Assessment practices shape how students experience learning, interpret classroom expectations, and respond to instructional processes. In science education, assessment tasks are especially important because they can direct students either toward learning-focused engagement or toward performance-based comparison. Against this background, the present study examined middle school students’ perceptions of classroom assessment environments and assessment tasks in science classes. It also investigated whether these perceptions varied according to gender and whether students’ views of assessment tasks predicted their perceptions of learning-oriented and performance-oriented assessment environments. The study was conducted using a correlational survey design. Participants were 2,277 students studying in Grades 6, 7, and 8 in the central district of a province in Türkiye. Data were gathered through the Perceptions of the Classroom Assessment Environment Scale and the Perceptions of Assessment Questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, dependent samples t-test, Friedman test, MANOVA, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The results indicated that students perceived their classroom assessment environment as more performance-oriented than learning-oriented. Perceptions of assessment tasks also varied significantly across dimensions; authenticity had the highest mean score, whereas congruence with planned learning had the lowest. Significant gender differences were observed in both the classroom assessment environment and assessment task perceptions, but the effect sizes were limited. Regression results showed that positive perceptions of assessment tasks predicted learning-oriented assessment environments positively and performance-oriented environments negatively. Overall, the findings indicate that assessment tasks designed to be meaningful, transparent, authentic, and responsive to students may support more learning-oriented assessment environments in science classes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abdulkadir Baygül, Serkan Buldur https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Predictive Validity of UTME on First-Year Chemistry Students’ CGPA in Universities in South-East, Nigeria
The predictive validity of the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) results on the first-year cumulative grade point average (CGPA) of chemistry education students in South-East Nigerian universities was investigated in this study. The study specifically examined whether gender and school type affect the association between UTME scores and students’ academic success. Three research questions and three hypotheses served as the investigation’s compass. The study design used was a correlational survey. In 2024–2025, 404 students (137 men and 267 women) were accepted into nine public institutions. Of these, 175 students (48 men and 127 women) were chosen at random from four universities. Students’ UTME scores, gender, school type, and first-year CGPA were gathered from institutional records using a structured proforma. Regression analysis, the t-test, and the Hayes macro process were used to analyze the data at the significance level of 0.05. The results showed a weakly positive correlation between first-year CGPA and UTME scores, with UTME making a negligible contribution to the variation in students’ academic achievement. UTME scores were not statistically significant predictors of first-year CGPA, according to the regression analysis. Additionally, there was no significant moderating effect of gender or kind of school on the association between academic achievement and UTME scores. The study comes to the conclusion that students’ academic progress in chemistry instruction cannot be predicted by UTME scores alone. It is advised that universities implement extra screening procedures to enhance admissions decisions and that admission authorities examine the UTME framework to better reflect the competencies needed for university education.
Copyright (c) 2026 Anselem Abonyi Ugwuanyi, Uzoamaka Pet Egbukwu, Monisade Folasade Aderanti, Calister Chinwe Eze, Blessing Adanu-Ogbole, Chukwuka Constance Uju https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Exploratory Path Analysis of Mathematics Ability Among At-Risk Students
Persistent mathematics underachievement among at-risk students remains a pressing educational concern because weak performance in mathematics can constrain later academic progression and learners’ ability to cope with more advanced school tasks. This study examined mathematics ability among at-risk students through an exploratory path analysis linking school-related, teacher-related, and student-related factors. Using a quantitative, cross-sectional, explanatory design, the study focused on students identified as at risk in mathematics through a TIMSS-like screening assessment. The respondents were 450 Grade 9 students from public and private junior high schools in Northwestern Mindanao, Philippines. There were 370 classified as at risk, and 368 cases were retained for the inferential analyses. Data were drawn from a mathematics ability test, a mathematics anxiety questionnaire, an attitude toward mathematics questionnaire, and a mathematics teaching strategy questionnaire. Analysis proceeded through descriptive statistics, regression-based screening, and exploratory path analysis using observed variables only. The final parsimonious model showed a good fit to the data. Appraisal and confidence emerged as the most immediate positive predictors of mathematics ability, while negative attitude showed a smaller negative role in the preliminary screening model. Teacher-related and school-related variables were linked to mathematics ability mainly through instructional and affective pathways. Reflective strategy showed positive direct and indirect associations through appraisal and confidence, whereas discussion showed negative indirect associations through the same mediators. The type of school also retained a small but significant direct contribution to mathematics ability, suggesting that broader school conditions remained relevant even after proximal affective and instructional factors were considered. The findings indicate that mathematics ability among at-risk students is best understood as a layered outcome shaped by school context, instructional processes, and students’ evaluative and competence-related responses to mathematics.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ace Amir Prescillas, Aniceto B. Naval https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Systematic Review of Instructional Pedagogies for Teaching Computer Education Among Secondary School Learners in Uganda
Computer Education has become part of modern curricula because of its impact on the development of digital literacy, problem-solving skills, and innovation. Curriculum reforms such as the Competency-Based Curriculum in Uganda have emphasized these competencies through learner-centered methods. However, successful implementation is still limited by the infrastructural factors, the traditional pedagogical methodology, and the lack of proper teacher preparation. The purpose of the study was to find out the most common pedagogical strategies in computer education worldwide, assess their efficiency, and discuss their applicability in education. A systematic literature review was conducted by using PRISMA 2020. ERIC, Scopus, JSTOR, ProQuest, Springer, Sage, Wiley, and Taylor and Francis were used to select 23 peer-reviewed publications published between 2010 and 2025. Constructivist theory, competency-based education, and critical thinking provided the basis of the review. The research involved a content analysis approach, which synthesized evidence on the strategies used in pedagogy, research designs, and learning outcomes. The results show that learner-centered pedagogies, specifically problem-based learning, project-based learning, computational thinking, flipped instruction, and collaborative learning, are most commonly applied and show a significant benefit in terms of increasing the engagement of learners, their critical thinking skills, their problem-solving capabilities, and their computational competence. These strategies are highly aligned with the main competencies highlighted in the competency-based curriculum. Nonetheless, they are hindered by contextual problems, such as the lack of ICT infrastructure, access to technological resources, and a lack of teacher training. The paper concludes that although globally accepted pedagogical strategies are very applicable to competency-based education structures, they require contextualization in order to be effectively implemented. Initiatives should be focused on enhancing teacher capacity, ICT infrastructure, and endorsing context-sensitive instructional practices to be implemented effectively in education environments characterized by resource constraints.
Copyright (c) 2026 Pison Asiimwe, Justine Momanyi Omare, Frank Murangira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Map and Trends in International Production on Biology Education
This study maps publications on biology education in the Web of Science database, aiming to understand its development and the most recent trends. A sample of 422 scientific articles was selected. Their metadata was bibliometrically analyzed using tools from the Bibliometrix statistical package. After reading the abstracts, the articles were categorized according to their type, research participants, thematic focus, and research design. It was found that publications on biology education have been growing, especially after 2014. The three main journals, the ten main authors, and the ten most impactful works in relation to the analyzed corpus are identified. The analyses showed that there is a small group of more prolific authors amidst a large mass of researchers with one or two publications, a proportion that suggests a dispersion of interest in the topic. The most important themes in the structure of academic production are related to “misconceptions” and “evolution,” which are among its motor themes, while descriptors such as “knowledge” and “concepts” stand out among the basic themes of the field. This suggests the importance of discussing the conceptual structure of biological knowledge, highlighting beliefs, attitudes, and the understanding of basic concepts. The thematic structure also reveals a concern with the training of biology teachers. The research reported is mainly survey-based, conducted with higher education students, and refers to teaching strategies or materials and psychological factors related to the teaching-learning process. Given the sample, research in the area is still dispersed among many authors who publish few works and cooperate little, which seems to indicate that the field is still seeking unity.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hugo Juliano Duarte Matias, Barbara Oliveira de Souza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Mayer’s Model of Solving Routine and Non-Routine Problems in Linear Word Problems
The Mayer model posits that students learn better from words and pictures than from words alone [HPX1.1], since dual representation of knowledge helps learners to construct verbal and pictorial mental models together and build connections between them. This study adopted Mayer’s (1985) model, consisting of problem translation, problem integration, solution planning, and solution execution, to examine problem-solving tasks. The objectives of the study were to translate, integrate, plan, and execute the four phases of linear word problems [HPX2.1]. The methods deployed a convergent parallel design to collect quantitative and qualitative data to compare and interpret the findings. The population was 638 students, comprising 400 and 238 from schools A’ and B’, and the sample was 350 students, comprising 200 and 150, respectively. And the ages ranged from 15 to 19 years [HPX3.1]. The data were collected through questionnaires and interview guides to complement and enhance validity and reliability. The data was analyzed through descriptive statistics and documents. The respondents had ethical consent, anonymity, permission, and voluntary participation. The key findings showed that the translation phase showed a significant negative statement, but a high presence of undecided responses across both non-routine linear word problems. Integration showed higher performance of students at higher percentiles, even though there were pronounced disparities between routine and non-routine linear problems, with routine problems showcasing higher average scores and less variability compared to non-routine problems. The planning phase showed differences in solving non-routine linear problems in expansion errors, clearing fractions, opening brackets, and grouping like terms. The execution phase consistently showed high percentages of errors in variable definitions and distribution. To minimize errors, we concluded that targeted interventions should strengthen and promote multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and interdisciplinary approaches to allow learners to translate, integrate, plan, and execute the four phases of linear word problems.
Copyright (c) 2026 Azobit Charles Awindago, Clement Ayarebilla Ali https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Enhancing Independent Learning and Conceptual Understanding of Integration in Higher Education Mathematics with Photomath
This study investigated the potential of the Photomath application to promote self-directed learning and integrated conceptual understanding among first-year pre-service mathematics teachers studying at a private higher learning institution during the 2024–2025 academic year. Fastened in a quantitative quasi-experimental survey design, the study targeted 46 purposively selected students pursuing mathematics-related subject combinations. Data were collected using a validated Likert-scale questionnaire designed to capture students’ attitudes, learning autonomy, and levels of conceptual understanding. The instrument demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with reliability coefficients ranging between 0.76 and 0.84. Statistical analysis using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) revealed statistically significant effects of Photomath usage on students’ attitudes toward mathematics, their conceptual understanding, and their capacity for independent learning. The findings indicated that the app positively influenced learners’ motivation and engagement by providing immediate feedback and step-by-step solution pathways. These features enabled students to follow logical problem-solving processes, thereby supporting deeper engagement with mathematical procedures and concepts. Participants further reported that Photomath facilitated the integration of mathematical ideas through its visual representations, symbolic explanations, and structured guidance. Such affordances supported self-directed learning by allowing learners to verify solutions independently, revisit explanations, and regulate their own pace of learning. While a minority of respondents expressed concerns regarding potential overreliance on the application and the risk of superficial understanding when used uncritically, the overall perceptions remained strongly positive. In conclusion, the study demonstrates that Photomath functions not only as a computational tool but also as a pedagogical aid that supports learner-centered instructional approaches. When used thoughtfully, the application has the potential to enhance conceptual understanding, foster autonomy, and complement formal mathematics instruction in higher education contexts.
Copyright (c) 2026 Onesme Niyibizi, Jean Nepomuscene Singirankabo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Mathematics Word Problem Mobile App in Enhancing Problem-Solving Skills Among Lower Secondary Students in Kicukiro District, Rwanda
Integrating technology into education has proven effective in enhancing both teaching and learning outcomes. In Rwanda, despite efforts to improve mathematics education, lower secondary students still perform poorly in solving word problems, as highlighted in national examination reports from 2019 to 2022 (NESA, 2023). This study aimed to evaluate the usability and effectiveness of a Mathematics Word Problem Mobile Application (Maths app) in improving students’ problem-solving skills. The Maths app was developed in alignment with Rwanda’s Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC), incorporating word problems across key mathematics topics such as Geometry, Algebra, Statistics, and Probability. The study used a mixed-methods approach and was conducted in two purposively selected day secondary schools in Kicukiro District. A total of 40 (32 males and 8 females) students participated in surveys, while a group of 20 (18 students and 2 teachers) took part in the usability evaluation. An additional 9 participants were interviewed. Purposive sampling targeted students with access to mobile phones and experienced mathematics teachers. Data collection methods included surveys, interviews, and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired t-tests via SPSS, while qualitative responses were examined thematically. Findings revealed a significant improvement in students’ problem-solving skills, demonstrated by higher posttest scores. The Maths app received a high SUS score of 80.875, indicating strong usability. Participants highlighted the app’s alignment with the curriculum and its interactive features as major strengths. The study concludes that the Maths app is a valuable tool for enhancing mathematics learning among lower secondary students. It recommends future improvements, such as expanding the range of word problems and enabling offline access, to support broader implementation and accessibility in resource-constrained environments.
Copyright (c) 2026 Thierry Niyitegeka, Dany Kamuhanda https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Determining the Acceleration Due to Gravity Using a Smartphone-Based Pendulum System
This study aimed to find the acceleration due to gravity using a smartphone pendulum system with the Phyphox application. As the need for new ideas and real-world applications in science education increases, researchers have explored how mobile sensor technology can provide a more precise and user-friendly alternative to traditional stopwatch methods. A simple pendulum setup, consisting of a smartphone, a string, and a fixed support, was used to record oscillation periods at different lengths. Data were analyzed by plotting the square of the time period against the length of the pendulum, which allowed for the calculation of local gravitational acceleration through linear regression. The computed value of acceleration due to gravity was 8.86 m/s², differing by 9.41 percent from the accepted standard value of 9.81 m/s². This difference falls within an acceptable range for classroom experimentation, considering potential error sources such as air resistance, timing delays, and misalignment. The study aimed to achieve four main objectives: to collect data from different pendulum lengths, to calculate local gravity, to compare the results with the standard value, and to verify the accuracy of the experiments. The findings indicate that smartphones can successfully reinforce physics concepts and support hands-on, inquiry-based learning. Using mobile apps boosts engagement, curiosity, and essential skills for the twenty-first century. As schools seek affordable ways to teach laboratory concepts, mobile sensor technologies like Phyphox provide a practical and accessible solution, particularly for classrooms lacking traditional lab equipment.
Copyright (c) 2026 Edison L. Uy, Ma. Noreen R. Eredia, John Lawrence A. Verzosa, Katrina M. Cabanacan, Rezy V. Mendaño, Carmen R. Lim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
TPCK of Mathematics Trainee Teachers: A Comparison using Mahalanobis Distance
This body of knowledge, known as ‘Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK)’, is essential to teaching both today and in the future. Teachers possess a high degree of knowledge that is based on ‘Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)’, ‘Technological Knowledge (TK)’, ‘Content Knowledge (CK)’, ‘Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)’, ‘Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)’, and ‘Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)’. This research work was done by collecting data from B.Ed. trainee teachers with mathematics as a method subject in West Bengal, India. The objective of the study is to compare the TPCK knowledge base of mathematics trainee teachers with respect to gender and residence. The descriptive Survey Method is followed. Trainee teachers with mathematics as a method subject from West Bengal, India, are taken as a sample. The TPACK-Math Scale by Önal (2016) is used for this study. Collected data is prepared by using MS Excel, analysed by SPSS 26, JASP 0.18.1, and MATLAB 2021b. Descriptive statistics (Mean, SD, and Covariance) and inferential statistics (Mahalanobis Distance) are used for this study. Calculated value of Mahalanobis Distance between male and female is 0.3417 (<1) and between rural and urban is 0.6625 (<1). There is no significant difference between male vs female and rural vs urban mathematics trainee teachers with respect to ‘TK’, ‘PK’, ‘CK’, ‘TPK’, ‘TCK’, ‘PCK’, ‘CNTK’, and ‘TPCK’. It is concluded that the dynamical nature of the knowledge base considered for the present study is independent of gender and residence of trainee teachers. Possible causes for such a non-significant finding in the educational research context are discussed. A comprehensive interpretation of the inherent limitations is acknowledged, and to overcome these limitations and deepen the understanding of TPCK development in mathematics education, further research is suggested.
Copyright (c) 2026 Subir Sen, Birbal Saha https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Efforts to Improve Critical Thinking Through the Discovery Learning Model on Benzene Material at De Britto College Senior High School
Critical thinking is one of the essential 21st-century skills that must be fostered in chemistry learning. However, observations indicate that students still struggle to connect the concept of benzene with a deep understanding, resulting in suboptimal development of critical thinking skills. This best practice aims to describe the implementation of the discovery learning model in enhancing the critical thinking skills of twelfth-grade MIPA 2 students at Kolese De Britto Senior High School, Yogyakarta, on the topic of benzene. The study was conducted with 29 male students aged 17–18 years. The discovery learning model was implemented through six instructional stages: stimulation, problem identification, data collection, data processing, verification, and generalization. The research instruments consisted of (1) a critical thinking test covering interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference with five essay questions; (2) a student activity observation sheet with ten engagement criteria; (3) open-ended interviews with six guiding questions to explore learning experiences; and (4) documentation in the form of field notes and students’ group work. Instrument validity was established through expert judgment, while the reliability of the test was analyzed using Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.82 (high category). The results revealed a significant improvement in students’ critical thinking skills. The average test score increased from 58.3 (pre-implementation) to 74.6 (initial cycle), and further to 86.2 (final practice). The N-gain analysis yielded 0.67, categorized as medium-to-high. Observations also indicated enhanced student participation in discussions, the ability to pose questions, and independent conclusion-making. In conclusion, this best practice demonstrates that the discovery learning model is effective in improving students’ critical thinking skills in learning benzene. The limitation of this study lies in the relatively small number of participants and the restricted context of a single school. Therefore, further research with a larger population and different chemistry topics is recommended to strengthen the generalizability of the findings.
Copyright (c) 2026 Suci Puji Setyowati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Effect of Diverse Assessment Methods on Undergraduate Engineering Students’ Performance in Mathematics Courses
Assessment plays a crucial role in shaping how students engage with mathematics in engineering programs. Traditional summative examinations often emphasize rote learning rather than problem-solving or conceptual understanding. This study investigates the impact of diverse assessment methods—including online quizzes, assignments, poster presentations, viva voce, mathematical software applications, note checking, and class participation—on undergraduate engineering students’ performance in mathematics courses. The objectives were to evaluate which assessment strategies most effectively enhance learning outcomes and to provide actionable insights for improving assessment practices in higher education. A quasi-experimental design was employed with a sample of second-year undergraduate engineering students enrolled in core mathematics courses. Data were collected using structured quizzes, software-based tasks, poster presentations, viva assessments, and student surveys, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that interactive and technology-driven methods, such as online quizzes and mathematical software tasks, had the strongest positive influence on student performance, while passive methods like note checking showed minimal impact. Assignments and viva voce were perceived as valuable for developing analytical reasoning and verbal articulation, although they sometimes generated stress. Poster presentations were effective in enhancing communication and creativity, but received mixed responses regarding mathematical depth. These results align with educational psychology frameworks, suggesting that active engagement reduces cognitive load and enhances intrinsic motivation. The study concludes that integrating diverse and interactive assessments fosters deeper conceptual understanding, problem-solving ability, and sustained engagement among engineering students. Implications for faculty, curriculum developers, policy makers, and educational technologists are discussed, particularly in terms of redesigning assessment frameworks and supporting professional development for educators.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nandini Rai, Yogesh Thakkar, Ravindra Salvi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Role of Realistic Mathematics Education in Teaching Mathematics from the Perspective of Mathematics Teachers
The National Center for Curriculum Development, in cooperation with the Jordanian Ministry of Education, has implemented significant modifications to its mathematics curriculum. These modifications focus on connecting mathematics education to students’ real-life experiences and highlighting the role of mathematics in practical applications. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate the role of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) in mathematics teaching and its positive impact as a teaching method, from the perspective of mathematics teachers using the revised curriculum. The study employed a descriptive research methodology, designing a questionnaire to assess the role of RME in mathematics instruction. Frequencies and averages of responses from mathematics teachers were calculated. Descriptive research, used in field research, helps to define the role of RME accurately and clearly. The study population consisted of 474 teachers, and the sample comprised 271 teachers. The findings show that RME plays a significant role in enhancing mathematics learning at the basic stage, with an overall high rating. Teachers emphasized that RME is most effective in providing students with meaningful mathematical knowledge and deep understanding, fostering creative and critical thinking through realistic activities, and encouraging learners to connect mathematical ideas with real-life examples. Overall, RME supports student-centered learning, strengthens enthusiasm, links mathematics to everyday situations, and promotes interdisciplinary connections, making mathematics more relevant, engaging, and deeply understood. The results also showed no significant differences in mathematics teachers’ responses to the questionnaire based on gender or academic qualifications. The study’s findings also help curriculum designers in Jordan evaluate the Jordanian curricula developed between 2019 and 2022 and obtain feedback on the updated curricula and their impact on teaching. This study is one of the few that has shed light on these curriculum developments.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammad Ali Ghunaimat https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Does Emotional Intelligence Drive Better Grades in Computer Studies? A Predictive Analysis
The study investigated students’ emotional intelligence as a predictor of their achievement in Computer Studies in Awka Education Zone. The study was guided by two research questions and two hypotheses. It adopted the correlation survey research design on a population of 14,657 senior secondary two (SS2) students, out of which a sample of 390 students was obtained using Taro Yamane’s formula. However, only 335 (128 males and 207 females) students, representing 85.9% of the sample size, accurately completed the administered questionnaires and thus were used as the sample for the study. Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) with a Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.79 was used for collecting data for this study. Three experts from the Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, validated the instrument. Data were collected by direct administration of the instruments to the students. Also, the second-term examination results of the students in Computer Studies for the 2023/2024 academic session were used as the achievement scores for the study. The data were analysed using the Pearson product-moment correlation Coefficient and regression analysis. The study’s findings revealed that emotional intelligence significantly predicted students’ academic achievement in Computer Studies. Also, the findings showed a moderating gender influence in the prediction in favour of the female students. The study’s findings imply that Computer studies teachers, as well as other educational stakeholders, should not just focus on helping students attain cognitive intelligence. These stakeholders should give emotional intelligence sufficient attention in the classroom, considering its significant role in predicting students’ academic achievement.
Copyright (c) 2026 Jane Nkiruka Ozumba, Ebele Chinelo Okigbo, Emmanuel Chibuike Nwune https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Improving Students’ Critical Thinking Skills Through the Development of E-Learning-Based Chemistry Textbooks
This study was conducted with the aim of developing an effective and feasible e-learning-based chemistry textbook intended to enhance students’ critical thinking abilities. The development process adhered to the ADDIE model, providing a systematic framework for the design of educational materials. Participants in the study consisted of first-semester chemistry education students at the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, UIN Mataram. Data were collected using both test and non-test instruments. Non-test instruments were employed to evaluate the feasibility of the e-learning-based chemistry textbook, whereas test instruments were used to measure students’ critical thinking skills. The study was carried out in two primary stages: validation of the product and trials involving chemistry education students at UIN Mataram. For the trials, a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test/post-test control group was implemented. The results of the study led to the following conclusions: (1) The developed e-learning chemistry textbook attained validity scores ranging from 0.857 to 0.905, classifying it as very high, with a reliability coefficient of 0.865. These results indicate that the textbook is valid and reliable for use in Basic Chemistry courses at the tertiary level. (2) Analysis using an independent samples t-test revealed a significance value of 0.018, below the alpha threshold of 0.05, confirming that the e-learning chemistry textbook is effective in improving students’ critical thinking skills. Overall, the findings demonstrate that the developed e-learning-based chemistry textbook is both valid and reliable, and it effectively enhances students’ critical thinking abilities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dwi Wahyudiati, Devi Qurniati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
STEM Teachers’ Use of E-Learning Resources in Scripted Lessons: Endeavours Toward Teacher Professional Development
Globally, teacher professional development is increasingly gaining recognition as an intervention that ensures practitioners are equipped with the teaching competencies needed to keep abreast of a rapidly evolving educational environment. Developing professional competencies is critical to a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) teacher’s growth. Empirical studies indicate that regular STEM teacher professional development (STEM-TPD) is necessary to develop these competencies. Drawing on the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, this mixed-methods study examines how beneficiaries of a Continuous Professional Development Certificate in Innovative Teaching Mathematics and Science (CPD ITMS) apply acquired skills to integrate e-learning resources into the teaching rehearsals of STEM subjects. Four purposively selected teachers take turns teaching scripted Mathematics, Biology, and Chemistry lessons. The teachers and one hundred and seventy (170) learners are participants in the study. Data is generated from Lesson Observations and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) sessions. Findings reveal that the teachers’ abilities to integrate e-learning resources in teaching and learning were at different levels. The majority of them applied integration strategies that were teacher-centered rather than learner-centered. Other findings show that teachers’ inability to navigate within the Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) aspects of the TPACK caused most of their challenges. Overall, lesson scripting provided for consistent teacher rehearsals and learners’ engagement that potentially heightened opportunities for teacher professional growth and sustained STEM-learning motivation for students. The study recommends sandwiched scripting that alternates with non-scripted, individually designed lessons to wean STEM teachers into sustainable capacity development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Christopher Mutseekwa, Cefas Nyasha Zimuto, Kevin Manunure, Jones Maeresera https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Mediating Role of Learning Skills in the Relationship between Student Achievements in Basic Science and Teaching Skills in the Twenty-First Century in Government-aided Secondary Schools
This study investigated the mediating role of learning skills in the relationship between student achievements in basic science and teaching skills in government-aided secondary schools in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The study utilized a cross-sectional correlation research design. The target population encompasses 17 secondary schools of 9,062 students from the 2023/2024 academic session. A sample size of 340 students was selected using a stratified random sampling technique through Cochran’s formula. A self-structured questionnaire was developed and rigorously evaluated for coherence, relevance, and clarity, with revisions from science education experts incorporated into the final version. A pilot study involving 45 participants outside the main sample area confirmed the validity and reliability of the instrument, achieving a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.775, surpassing the acceptable threshold of 0.70. The data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 27 and descriptive statistics to address key research questions related to student achievement levels, perceived teaching skills, and learning skills. The findings indicated that students demonstrate a robust understanding of basic science concepts, indicating effective teaching methods. However, a gap existed between students’ theoretical knowledge and their confidence in problem-solving, highlighting the need for enhanced problem-based learning strategies. The study also revealed that while students showed high motivation for assignments, traditional assessments may not fully capture their comprehension. Furthermore, there are limited opportunities for collaborative projects and technology integration, and challenges remain in fostering higher-order thinking skills. The study also showed that students expressed the importance of constructive feedback and hands-on learning, but required additional support for self-reflection and active participation. Finally, improving teacher-student relationships and creating a more inclusive learning environment are essential for enhancing educational outcomes. From the results’ findings, the researchers recommended that the PBL strategy, technology, and collaboration should be integrated into students’ learning.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lucy Aja, Okechukwu Sunday Abonyi, Balafama Green, Tukur Muhammad, Iruka John Elom, Mohammad Lubega, Aquila Modupe Otitoju https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Inquiry-Based Learning in Science: Mathematical Reasoning’s Support of Critical Thinking
The evolution of educational paradigms toward inquiry-based learning (IBL) in science education has significantly altered pedagogical practices by emphasizing the necessity of active student participation in the learning process. Through questioning, research, and problem-solving, IBL invites students to investigate scientific phenomena, so promoting a closer knowledge retention and understanding. Integral to this approach is the function of mathematical thinking, which functions not only as a tool for quantitative analysis but also as a basic framework for critical thinking. Mathematical reasoning helps students organize their searches, efficiently analyze data, and come to reasonable conclusions. This interaction improves their ability to link mathematical ideas and scientific concepts, developing more advanced higher-order thinking abilities. Understanding how mathematical reasoning supports critical thinking within IBL will help curriculum development and teaching strategies in science education be much more informed as education progressively prioritizes integrating multidisciplinary approaches. In science education especially, IBL is especially helpful since it fits very nicely with the Next Generation Science Standards, which support student-centered learning environments that advance critical thinking and teamwork. IBL helps students develop critical skills, including analytical thinking and reasoning, by pushing them to create their own questions and search for answers through investigation. Moreover, including mathematical reasoning in IBL improves students’ problem-solving capacity by letting them approach challenging scientific questions with a strong methodological framework. IBL thus not only fosters curiosity but also provides the cognitive tools required for advanced learning in scientific fields.
Copyright (c) 2025 Konstantinos T. Kotsis https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Implementing Whole Brain Teaching Within A Pre-Service Teachers’ Introductory Programming Instruction: An Action Research Study
This study investigated the implementation of whole brain teaching within a constructivist teaching strategy in pre-service teachers’ programming education, towards enhancing their knowledge of procedural programming. From a qualitative paradigm lens, hermeneutic phenomenology guided the inquiry. The research strategy involves two action research cycles involving fifty-eight pre-service teachers purposively sampled over two academic sessions. The Whole Brain instructional plan was designed to facilitate the programming instruction. Data were collected through surveys, interviews, and classroom observations. The findings generated two themes: programming intervention promoted student engagement and pre-service teachers’ teaching strategies through self-confidence in problem-solving and self-regulation of learning. These results contributed to the literature on pedagogical innovations in the teaching of programming and provided recommendations for enhancing pre-service teachers’ programming learning with a focus on holistic brain development through the implementation of the whole-brain programming walk-around and instructional plan for programming lessons. For transparency in research, it is necessary to state that even though the data for this study were collected in 2016 and 2017, the data are still significant within the context of programming education. The findings of this study support current literature on constructivist learning and also address gaps in the implementation of whole-brain learning for programming teaching. The findings of this study cannot be generalized due to the nature of action research studies, but can be replicated in another context. Further exploration with larger sample sizes and diverse contexts could bolster the robustness and generalizability of these findings.
Copyright (c) 2025 Fatimah Yetunde Akinrinola, Nofiu Oriyomi Iposu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Constructivism in Online Course Design of Skilled-based Courses and Its Impact on Student Achievement
The following monogram presents a research case study involving two sections of an asynchronous online college algebra course which aimed at exploring the potential impact (or lack thereof) of the traditional one-size-fits-all online course design ideology for the development of skilled-based courses at a large higher education institution in Florida, USA. At the principal author’s institution, as appears to be the case in many other sister institutions, constructivism is the philosophical framework upon which all online courses are being built – that occurs without the consideration that the impact of constructivist elements of course design may have little to no effect on student achievement when applied to largely or strictly skilled-based courses. Empirical observations, as well as past experiences in this field, have pointed to the realization that there are many skilled-based courses “sprinkled” with myriads of “little” tasks aimed at conforming to the constructivist ideology that do not appear to add any value in terms of the actual objectives of learning. Therefore, adding such tasks for the mere satisfaction of or adherence to a particular educational ideology may pose an inappropriate, ineffective, and inefficient way to provide and assess learning. Hence, it was the authors’ impetus to investigate what empirical observations in online skilled-based courses alluded to in a structured academic research manner and ascertain mathematically whether such a misalignment exists so as to inform future practice. Results obtained confirmed empirical observations that adding constructivist elements in the asynchronous online college algebra courses analyzed made no difference in overall student success.
Copyright (c) 2025 Pascal Roubides, Adwyn Roubides https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Handling Language Difficulties in Mathematical Word Problems Using Innovative Language-Supportive Pedagogy
This study examined the extent of language-related difficulties encountered in teaching and learning secondary school mathematics word problems and subsequently developed exemplary Language-Supportive Pedagogical (LSP) materials to mitigate these difficulties. The idea was raised because, despite the importance of mathematics in human life, reports show that its achievement worldwide is still low. In Tanzania, for example, the subject has performed poorly in national examinations, particularly in ordinary-level secondary education. According to national examination reports based on item analysis, students attempt questions incorrectly because they do not understand the demands of the questions, likely due to low language proficiency. This study aimed to develop LSP materials that help teach mathematics through user-friendly language. The social constructivism theory of learning, building on the work of van den Akker (2010), was employed to provide guidelines and principles for material design. After being piloted to gauge their feasibility, the language supporting materials were ultimately assessed to determine their effectiveness. Tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation were used to gather both qualitative and quantitative data in an adaptation of developmental research. The study involved three secondary schools (a pilot school with 40 students, an intervention school with 48 students, and a control school with 41 students), three mathematics experts from the university, four teachers of mathematics, and Form IV students purposely sampled. The proposed design guidelines and principles for the material employed LSP characteristics that focused on simple language and context-based activities, pictures, real materials, and a mathematics glossary. Findings from formative and semi-summative evaluations indicate that teachers and students showed the need for language supportive materials in mathematics that could address the observed difficulties. During the post-test, students who were taught using LSP materials performed better than those who used the conventional approach.
Copyright (c) 2026 Emily Christopher, Francis William https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Junior High School Science Teachers’ Perception of Their Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
The integration of technology into education has become indispensable in fostering effective teaching and learning, particularly in the sciences. However, the ability of teachers to blend technological tools with pedagogical strategies and content knowledge is captured in a framework known as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). Despite the growing emphasis on technology in education, limited research exists on the TPACK competencies of science teachers in Ghana. Understanding these competencies is vital for informing professional development programs and enhancing the quality of science education in Junior High Schools (JHS). This study explored three main questions: (1) How do JHS science teachers perceive their understanding of TPACK constructs? (2) What are the correlations between these constructs, their collective impact on TPACK, and (3) what construct is the strongest predictor of TPACK? A descriptive survey design utilizing questionnaires to collect primary data from 145 JHS science teachers was employed. Data were analyzed using frequency distributions, means, standard deviations, and multiple regression. The findings revealed that science teachers demonstrate a high perceived understanding of the TPACK constructs. There were strong positive correlations between TPACK and its six constituent constructs. Notably, Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) emerged as the most significant predictor of overall TPACK competency. These results underscore the robust self-perceptions of TPACK competencies among JHS science teachers in the study area, suggesting a strong foundation for technology integration in science education. The study’s findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, educational administrators, and teacher educators in Ghana. The study recommends the development of targeted professional development programs in technology to strengthen teachers’ TPACK capacity to improve science education outcomes in Ghanaian junior high schools. Furthermore, the identification of TCK as a key predictor highlights the importance of focusing on the intersection of technology and content knowledge in teacher training initiatives.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
Copyright (c) 2025 Joseph Kobina Baah, Kofi Acheaw Owusu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Satisfaction Level of Science and Mathematics Teachers with Their School Principals as Resident Supervisors in Enhancing Students’ Learning
The purpose of this study was to examine the satisfaction levels of Jordanian science and mathematics teachers regarding the school principal’s role as a resident supervisor. The target population consisted of all Jordanian science and mathematics teachers, from which a sample of 212 male and female teachers was drawn. Data were obtained through a researcher-designed questionnaire, the validity and reliability of which were established prior to its administration. The instrument was disseminated electronically to participants using the snowball sampling method. Findings revealed that the overall satisfaction of Jordanian science and mathematics teachers with the principal’s role as a resident supervisor fell within the high category. Moreover, no significant differences were identified in teachers’ satisfaction levels based on gender, years of teaching experience, type of school (public or private), or area of specialization (science or mathematics). Findings concluded that the role of the school principal as resident supervisor has become a necessity rather than just an option. Accordingly, the study reached several recommendations: maintaining the promotion of the culture of resident supervision, strengthening the factors that increase the level of teachers’ satisfaction with their principals, and achieving fairness, regardless of the gender of the teacher and school principal, specialization, type of school (government or private sector), experience, academic degree, and other variables strengthening the integrated relationship between school principals, teachers, students, and the local community. This study aims to investigate the relationship of teachers with educational supervision, parents, and their relationship with each other. Researchers can also conduct studies to investigate the impact of the role of the school principal as a mentor in improving the performance of teachers and students.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ali Khaled Bawaneh, Yazan M. Alghazo, Belal S. Rabab'h, Abdulghani Al-Hattami https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Enhancing Student Learning Through Collaborative Inquiry: Determining the Refractive Index of Various Substances
The refractive index is a fundamental property of materials that describes how light propagates through a medium, enabling an understanding of optical phenomena such as refraction. This study investigates the refractive indices of water, oil, and glass using hands-on experimentation based on Snell’s Law. The researchers, who were also the participants, conducted the study as part of an independent project under the Cambridge AS Level Physics curriculum. Utilizing basic laboratory materials, including a ray box, protractor, and transparent containers, the experiment involved measuring the angles of incidence and refraction to calculate refractive indices. Each measurement was repeated three times for accuracy, and multiple angles of incidence were tested for consistency. The results showed a strong agreement between experimental and theoretical values, with refractive indices of 1.33 for water, 1.46 for oil, and 1.52 for glass, yielding percent errors of 0%, 0.68%, and 0.66%, respectively. These findings confirmed the reliability of the methodology and the validity of Snell’s Law. Minor deviations were attributed to potential sources of error, such as measurement inaccuracies and material impurities. This hands-on activity enhanced the researchers’ conceptual understanding of light behavior while promoting critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research skills. The perspective of the students was meaningful as they enjoyed the activity. The collaborative nature of the activity was an outlet for the participants to enhance their learning. The practical approach fostered a deeper appreciation for experimental physics and demonstrated the importance of systematic data collection and analysis in scientific inquiry. By bridging theory with practice, the study highlighted the value of active learning in understanding complex physical concepts.
Copyright (c) 2025 Islom Ruziyev, Behruz Sayfullayev, Otabek Khushnazarov, Akmal Abdimuminov, Khadicha Mamatkulova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Leveraging AI and ICT for Greener Education in the Face of Climate Change in Smart Classrooms
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are reshaping educational approaches to sustainability and climate action, fostering environmentally responsible attitudes among students. The study seeks to find how the integration of Artificial Intelligence and Information and Communication Technology in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) affects the promotion of sustainability and climate action among students and the extent to which these technologies enhance student engagement with sustainability concepts, facilitate diverse perspectives on climate issues and contribute to the overall reduction of the carbon footprint of educational institutions. Many academic institutions struggle to effectively integrate these technologies into their curricula, which may hinder the potential to engage students in meaningful ways regarding sustainability and climate action. Educators can personalise learning by utilising AI-driven analytics and ICT tools, making sustainability concepts more engaging. AI can assess learning patterns to deliver tailored content that highlights environmental stewardship, while ICT provides access to global resources, allowing students to explore climate issues from diverse perspectives. Smart technologies like IoT devices and virtual learning platforms are crucial for reducing the carbon footprint of educational institutions. Online learning minimises the need for physical infrastructure, reducing travel-related carbon footprints. By incorporating these technologies into curricula, institutions can cultivate a generation of informed, environmentally-conscious citizens. This study employs a qualitative approach to evaluate AI and ICT’s impact on promoting sustainability in university education. Data were collected through interviews with students and lecturers. Students reported increased engagement through AI-enhanced platforms. Lecturers indicated that the universities that use IoT energy monitoring reduce energy consumption. Recommendations include investing in lecturer training for AI and ICT integration, developing interdisciplinary curricula focused on sustainability, improving IoT infrastructure for energy management, encouraging cross-departmental collaboration on climate issues, and promoting student participation in sustainability-focused research projects. These steps can significantly enhance educational strategies and foster student commitment to climate action.
Information and Communication Technology
Copyright (c) 2025 Doris Chasokela, Joseph Hlongwane https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Exploring Experiential Learning: Perceptions of Working Postgraduates in Rwanda’s Weekend Mathematics Education Program
This study aimed to explore the perceptions and lived experiences of postgraduate students in Rwanda who pursue a Master of Education in Mathematics Education while working full-time, focusing specifically on their engagement in weekend classes. The research sought to understand their motivations, challenges, and outcomes as they uphold the dual responsibilities of professional and academic commitments. Employing a qualitative, phenomenological approach, the study collected data through in-depth interviews with ten postgraduate students. Thematic analysis was used to reveal frequent themes and patterns within their narratives, providing the understanding of their experiences. Findings revealed a different range of motivations powerful these students, including aspirations for career advancement, a desire for personal development, and an interest in gaining specialized knowledge in mathematics education. However, the participants reported significant challenges, with time management and balancing weekend studies with full-time work being among the most prevalent. Despite these difficulties, the students revealed resilience, influencing support systems and intrinsic motivation to manage their commitments. The findings highlighted the unique pressures and demands of weekend postgraduate programs, particularly in balancing professional and personal responsibilities. This study contributes to the growing body of research on the experiences of working postgraduate students. It highlights the importance of made-to-measure program structures and support mechanisms to enhance learning outcomes and improve work-study balance. The insights gained from this research provide valuable implications for educational policymakers, program designers, and institutions offering weekend postgraduate programs, particularly in mathematics education, to better meet the needs of this unique student demographic.
Copyright (c) 2025 Onesme Niyibizi, Marie Claudine Uwitatse https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Effect of Hybrid Teaching Strategy via Mobile Applications in Education on Students' Mathematics Achievement
In our digital age, traditional teaching methods have become unattractive to students, making education that combines interactive visual media, audio media, and collaborative media in a hybrid form provide an engaging and effective learning experience. This research highlights the impact of the hybrid teaching strategy via mobile phone applications in education on college students’ achievement in mathematics. The research divided the students into two groups, an experimental group and a control group. When conducting the test, the research community was taken from students of the Principles of Mathematics course at the university for the second semester of the academic year 2021/2022. The sample was taken from 60 students who were deliberately selected and divided into an experimental study group (30) students who were studied according to the hybrid teaching strategy via mobile phone applications in education and a control group (30) students who were taught in the usual way. The equivalence of the two groups was taken into account according to the variables: the student’s age, intelligence, and grades in previous mathematics courses. An achievement test was prepared, and the data was collected, analyzed, and processed statistically using the (t) test. The results obtained indicated the superiority of the experimental group over the control group, which confirms the positive impact of using hybrid education in teaching mathematics. The implementation of mobile applications indicates the need for professional development activities for teachers, students, and educational administrations in an adequate and thoughtful manner.
Copyright (c) 2025 Khaled Ahmed Aqeel Alzoubi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Impact of Artificial Intelligence in TVET and STEM Education among Higher Learning Students in Malaysia
The advancement of Technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools are widely used and help in education such as in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), as well as Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). This qualitative study is to identify the impact of AI on students in higher learning settings of TVET and STEM programs in Malaysia. From among science and engineering students, this study aimed to identify in what ways the tools and technologies impact on these learners’ experiences, impact their learning, their academic performance, and preparedness for their careers in the future. This study uses a thematic analysis research design. The sample will consist of 10 participants selected based on varying experiences and views. The research method chosen is an in-depth interview, meaning that it will go into details about the benefits and challenges of AI use in education as they are perceived by students. The initial findings will provide an insight into crucial themes enhancement in learning efficiency, development of critical thinking skills, and challenges resulting from the adoption of new technologies. In addition, this research also identifies possible application areas of AI for improving educational outcomes in TVET and STEM and possible barriers for effective implementation. Findings will provide an overview of the knowledge base at the present time about the adoption of AI in the higher learning sector, with associated meaning for educators, and institutions that are considering embedding AI into curricula. The outcome will further realize how AI could be applied to narrow the gap between traditional ways of educating people regarding the demands of an increasingly digitalized workforce, hence significantly improving the employability of TVET and STEM graduates in Malaysia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mohammad Aniq Bin Amdan, Naldo Janius, Mohd Safwan Bin Saidin, Mohamad Aidil Hazidi Bin Kasdiah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Development of Interactive Learning Media for Islamic Religious Education in Elementary Schools in Indonesia
In today’s digital era, conventional teaching methods often fail to captivate students, making interactive media a promising solution. Interactive media combines visual, audio, and participatory elements, providing a more engaging and effective learning experience. The development process includes analyzing student needs and curriculum, selecting appropriate technology, creating interactive content, conducting trials, and evaluating effectiveness. This study uses a qualitative approach. Primary data sources in qualitative research are the words of the interview results obtained from primary data including respondents from teachers and students in SDMT Ponorogo. Data collection is carried out by means of snowball sampling. The data collection technique in this study is through observation, in-depth interviews and documentation. The data obtained during the study, both primary and secondary data are then processed and analyzed using Miles and Huberman model. The validity test of data in qualitative research includes tests, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The article highlights the benefits of interactive media, including increased student motivation, improved understanding of abstract religious concepts, and the development of critical thinking skills. This approach not only modernizes religious education but also ensures that students remain interested and actively involved in learning. Through proper testing and implementation, interactive media can significantly enhance the quality of Islamic Religious Education at SDMT Ponorogo. The developed media, which consists of animated videos, interactive quizzes, and educational games, is able to make the learning process more engaging and increase student engagement.
Copyright (c) 2024 Happy Susanto, Siti Marpuah, Sudarmadi, Devid Dwi Erwahyudin, Nani Wahyuni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0